Palmitoylethanolamide and hemp oil extract exert synergistic anti-nociceptive effects in mouse models of acute and chronic pain.

The use of products derived from hemp - i.e., cannabis varieties with low Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) content - as self-medication for pain and other health conditions is gaining in popularity but preclinical and clinical evidence for their effectiveness remains very limited. In the present study, we assessed the efficacy of a full-spectrum hemp oil extract (HOE; 10, 50 and 100 mg-kg-1; oral route), alone or in combination with the anti-inflammatory and analgesic agent palmitoylethanolamide (PEA; 10, 30, 100 and 300 mg-kg-1; oral route), in the formalin and chronic constriction injury (CCI) tests. We found that HOE exerts modest antinociceptive effects when administered alone, whereas the combination of sub-effective oral doses of HOE and PEA produces a substantial greater-than-additive alleviation of pain-related behaviors. Transcription of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-10 increased significantly in lumbar spinal cord tissue on day 7 after CCI surgery, an effect that was attenuated to the same extent by HOE alone or by the HOE/PEA combination. Pharmacokinetic experiments show that co-administration of HOE enhances and prolongs systemic exposure to PEA. Collectively, our studies lend support to possible beneficial effects of using HOE in combination with PEA to treat acute and chronic pain.

Naturally Occurring Cannabinoids and their Role in Modulation of Cardiovascular Health.

In recent years, the role of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in various cardiovascular conditions has been a subject of great interest. The ECS is composed of cannabinoid receptors, their endogenous ligands, also known as endocannabinoids, and enzymes responsible for the synthesis and degradation of endocannabinoids. Several lines of evidence suggest that the ECS plays a complex role in cardiac and vascular systems; however, under normal physiological conditions the functions of the ECS are limited. Overactivation of components of the ECS has been associated with various cardiovascular conditions. Intriguingly, activation of the ECS may also reflect a cardioprotective compensatory mechanism. With this knowledge, a range of naturally occurring and synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and antagonists, as well as inhibitors of endocannabinoid metabolic enzymes have emerged as promising approaches for the treatment or management of cardiovascular health. This review will first focus on the known role of the ECS in regulating the cardiovascular system. Secondly, we discuss emerging data highlighting the therapeutic potential of naturally occurring non-psychoactive ECS modulators within the cardiovascular system, including phytocannabinoids, terpenes, and the endocannabinoid-like molecule palmitoylethanolamide.

T1R2 receptor-mediated glucose sensing in the upper intestine potentiates glucose absorption through activation of local regulatory pathways.

OBJECTIVE: Beyond the taste buds, sweet taste receptors (STRs; T1R2/T1R3) are also expressed on enteroendocrine cells, where they regulate gut peptide secretion but their regulatory function within the intestine is largely unknown. METHODS: Using T1R2-knock out (KO) mice we evaluated the role of STRs in the regulation of glucose absorption in vivo and in intact intestinal preparations ex vivo. RESULTS: STR signaling enhances the rate of intestinal glucose absorption specifically in response to the ingestion of a glucose-rich meal. These effects were mediated specifically by the regulation of GLUT2 transporter trafficking to the apical membrane of enterocytes. GLUT2 translocation and glucose transport was dependent and specific to glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2) secretion and subsequent intestinal neuronal activation. Finally, high-sucrose feeding in wild-type mice induced rapid downregulation of STRs in the gut, leading to reduced glucose absorption. CONCLUSIONS: Our studies demonstrate that STRs have evolved to modulate glucose absorption via the regulation of its transport and to prevent the development of exacerbated hyperglycemia due to the ingestion of high levels of sugars.

Inhibition of sweet chemosensory receptors alters insulin responses during glucose ingestion in healthy adults: a randomized crossover interventional study.

Background: Glucose is a natural ligand for sweet taste receptors (STRs) that are expressed on the tongue and in the gastrointestinal tract. Whether STRs directly contribute to the regulation of glucose homeostasis in response to glucose ingestion is unclear.Objective: We sought to determine the metabolic effects of the pharmacologic inhibition of STRs in response to an oral glucose load in healthy lean participants.Design: Ten healthy lean participants with a body mass index (in kg/m2) of 22.4 ± 0.8 were subjected to an oral-glucose-tolerance test (OGTT) on 4 separate days with the use of a randomized crossover design. Ten minutes before the 75-g OGTT, participants consumed a preload solution of either 300 parts per million (ppm) saccharin or water with or without the addition of 500 ppm lactisole, a human-specific inhibitor of STRs. When present, lactisole was included in both the preload and OGTT solutions. We assessed plasma responses of glucose, insulin, C-peptide, glucagon, glucagon-like peptides 1 and 2, gastric inhibitory peptide, acetaminophen, and 3-O-methylglucose. With the use of mathematical modeling, we estimated gastric emptying, glucose absorption, ß-cell function, insulin sensitivity and clearance, and the portal insulin:glucagon ratio.Results: The addition of lactisole to the OGTT caused increases in the plasma responses of insulin (P = 0.012), C-peptide (P = 0.004), and the insulin secretory rate (P = 0.020) compared with the control OGTT. The addition of lactisole also caused a slight reduction in the insulin sensitivity index independent of prior saccharin consumption (P < 0.025). The ingestion of saccharin before the OGTT did not alter any of the measured variables but eliminated the effects of lactisole on the OGTT.Conclusion: The pharmacologic inhibition of STRs in the gastrointestinal tract alters insulin responses during an oral glucose challenge in lean healthy participants. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02835859.

Oleoylethanolamide: A fat ally in the fight against obesity.

Obesity is a pandemic, gateway disease that has thrived in modern, sedentary, high calorie-eating societies. Left unchecked, obesity and obesity-related diseases will continue to plague future generations with heavy burdens on economies, healthcare systems, and the quality of life of billions. There is a significant need to elucidate basic physiological mechanisms and therapies that address this global health care crisis. Oleoylethanolamide (OEA) is an endocannabinoid-like lipid that induces hypophagia and reduces fat mass in rodents. For over a decade, PPAR-α has been the most widely accepted mediator of the hypophagic action of OEA via signaling to homeostatic brain centers. Recent evidence suggests that OEA may also reduce food intake via effects on dopamine and endocannabinoid signaling within hedonic brain centers. Limited study of OEA supplementation in humans has provided some encouraging insight into OEA-based weight loss therapy, but more thorough, controlled investigations are needed. As a potential link between homeostatic and hedonic regulation of food intake, OEA is a prime starting point for the development of more effective obesity therapies.

Disruption of the sugar-sensing receptor T1R2 attenuates metabolic derangements associated with diet-induced obesity.

Sweet taste receptors (STRs) on the tongue mediate gustatory sweet sensing, but their expression in the gut, pancreas, and adipose tissue suggests a physiological contribution to whole body nutrient sensing and metabolism. However, little is known about the function and contribution of these sugar sensors during metabolic stress induced by overnutrition and subsequent obesity. Here, we investigated the effects of high-fat/low-carbohydrate (HF/LC) diet on glucose homeostasis and energy balance in mice with global disruption of the sweet taste receptor protein T1R2. We assessed body composition, energy balance, glucose homeostasis, and tissue-specific nutrient metabolism in T1R2 knockout (T1R2-KO) mice fed a HF/LC diet for 12 wk. HF/LC diet-fed T1R2-KO mice gained a similar amount of body mass as did WT mice, but had reduced fat mass and increased lean mass relative to WT mice. T1R2-KO mice were also hyperphagic and hyperactive. Ablation of the T1R2 sugar sensor protected mice from HF/LC diet-induced hyperinsulinemia and altered substrate utilization, including increased rates of glucose oxidation and decreased liver triglyceride (TG) accumulation, despite normal intestinal fat absorption. Finally, STRs (T1r2/T1r3) were upregulated in the adipose tissue of WT mice in response to HF/LC diet, and their expression positively correlated with fat mass and glucose intolerance. The chemosensory receptor T1R2, plays an important role in glucose homeostasis during diet-induced obesity through the regulation of yet to be identified molecular mechanisms that alter energy disposal and utilization in peripheral tissues.

Possible role of intestinal fatty acid oxidation in the eating-inhibitory effect of the PPAR-α agonist Wy-14643 in high-fat diet fed rats.

PPAR-α plays a key role in lipid metabolism; it enhances fatty acid oxidation (FAO) and ketogenesis. Pharmacological PPAR-α activation improves insulin sensitivity and reduces food intake, but its mechanisms of action remain unknown. We here report that intraperitoneal (IP) administration of the PPAR-α agonist Wy-14643 (40 mg/kg BW) reduced food intake in adult male rats fed a high-fat diet (HFD, 49% of the energy) mainly through an increase in the latency to eat after injection, and without inducing a conditioned taste avoidance. Also, IP administered Wy-14643 caused an acute (the first 60 min) decrease in the respiratory quotient (RQ) and an increase in hepatic portal vein ß-hydroxybutyrate level (at 35 min) without affecting plasma non-esterified fatty acids. Given the known stimulatory effect of PPAR-α on FAO and ketogenesis, we measured the protein expression level of carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 (CPT 1A) and mitochondrial 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A synthase (HMG-CoAS2), two key enzymes for FAO and ketogenesis, respectively, in liver, duodenum and jejunum. Wy-14643 induced a significant increase in the expression of CPT 1A in the jejunum and duodenum and of HMG-CoAS2 in the jejunum, but neither CPT 1A nor HMG-CoAS2 expression was increased in the liver. The induction of CPT 1A and HMG-CoAS2 expression was associated with a decrease in the lipid droplet content selectively in the jejunum. Our findings indicate that Wy-14643 stimulates FAO and ketogenesis in the intestine, in particular in the jejunum, rather than in the liver, thus supporting the hypothesis that PPAR-α activation inhibits eating by stimulating intestinal FAO.